Antarctica is the southernmost continent. Including all islands and ice shelves, it covers an area of about 13.9 million square kilometres (km2)—nearly twice that of Australia. The sea ice that surrounds Antarctica adds about another 19 million km2 at its maximum extent in September–October (Fretwell et al. 2013), diminishing to 3 million km2 in February (Parkinson & Cavalieri 2012). The annual growth and retreat of the Antarctic sea ice are one of nature’s most significant large-scale annual changes. Antarctica is Earth’s coldest, highest, windiest and driest continent, and its largest cold desert. Only about 21,745 km2, or 0.18 per cent, of the total Antarctic land mass is ice-free (Burton-Johnson et al. 2016). Antarctica also has the deepest continental shelf and is surrounded by the largest wind-driven currents, which circulate the Southern Ocean. It is the only continent that has never had a native human population.

Burton-Johnson A, Black M, Peter TF & Kaluza-Gilbert J (2016). An automated methodology for differentiating rock from snow, clouds and sea in Antarctica from Landsat 8 imagery: a new rock outcrop map and area estimation for the entire Antarctic continent. Cryosphere 10(4):1665–1677.

Fretwell P, Pritchard HD, Vaughan DG, Bamber JL, Barrand NE, Bell R, Bianchi C, Bingham RG, Blankenship DD, Casassa G, Catania G, Callens D, Conway H, Cook AJ, Corr HFJ, Damaske D, Damm V, Ferraccioli F, Forsberg R, Fujita S, Gim Y, Gogineni P, Griggs JA, Hindmarsh RCA, Holmlund P, Holt JW, Jacobel RW, Jekins A, Jokat W, Jordan T, King EC, Kohler J, Krabill W, Riger-Kusk M, Langley KA, Leitchenkov G, Leuschen C, Luyendyk BP, Matsuoka K, Mouginot J, Nitsche FO, Nogi Y, Nost OA, Popov SV, Rignot E, Rippin DM, Rivera A, Roberts J, Ross N, Siegert MJ, Smith AM, Steinhage D, Studinger M, Sun B, Tinto BK, Welch BC, Wilson D, Young DA, Xiangbin C & Zirizzotti A (2013). Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica. Cryosphere 7(1):375–393.

Parkinson CL & Cavalieri DJ (2012). Antarctic sea ice variability and trends, 1979–2010. Cryosphere 6:871–880.

Topics

Antarctic environment

Global importance of Antarctica

Although isolated from other continents, Antarctica is connected to the rest of the world through oceanic and atmospheric circulations. Antarctica and the surrounding Southern Ocean are key drivers of Earth’s oceanic and atmospheric systems.
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Antarctic environment

The natural environment

The Antarctic environment comprises diverse habitats and ecosystems that include: ice-covered areas; ice-free vegetated areas and rocks; saltwater and freshwater lakes and streams; intertidal areas; sea ice; and mid-water, deepwater and benthic regions...
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Antarctic environment

Antarctic governance

The Antarctic Treaty and a set of related international agreements, known collectively as the Antarctic Treaty System, provide the framework for governance of the Antarctic region.
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Antarctic environment

Australian Antarctic Territory

The AAT comprises an area of approximately 5.9 million km2, and its coastline extends more than 11,200 kilometres (excluding offshore islands). 
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Antarctic environment
Introduction
Antarctica
Antarctic environment

Antarctic environment: 2011–16 in context

Since 2011, the Antarctic environment has continued to respond to global pressures from human activity.
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Introduction
Antarctica
Klekociuk A, Wienecke B (2016). Antarctic environment: Introduction. In: Australia state of the environment 2016, Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy, Canberra, https://soe.environment.gov.au/theme/antarctic-environment/framework/introduction, DOI 10.4226/94/58b65b2b307c0